ELECTIONS
The Benchmark of Elections
Elections are the central institution of democratic
representative governments. Why? Because, in a
democracy, the authority of the government derives solely from
the consent of the governed. The principal
mechanism for translating that consent into governmental
authority is the holding of free and fair elections.
All modern democracies hold elections, but not all elections
are democratic. Right-wing dictatorships,
Marxist regimes, and single-party governments also stage
elections to give their rule the aura of legitimacy. In
such elections, there may be only one candidate or a list of
candidates, with no alternative choices. Such
elections may offer several candidates for each office, but
ensure through intimidation or rigging that only the
government-approved candidate is chosen. Other elections may
offer genuine choices--but only within the
incumbent party. These are not democratic elections.
What Are Democratic Elections?
Jeane Kirkpatrick, scholar and former U.S. ambassador to the
United Nations, has offered this definition:
"Democratic elections are not merely symbolic....They are
competitive, periodic, inclusive, definitive elections
in which the chief decision-makers in a government are selected
by citizens who enjoy broad freedom to criticize
government, to publish their criticism and to present
alternatives."
What do Kirkpatrick's criteria mean? Democratic elections
are competitive. Opposition parties and
candidates must enjoy the freedom of speech, assembly, and
movement necessary to voice their criticisms of the
government openly and to bring alternative policies and
candidates to the voters. Simply permitting the
opposition access to the ballot is not enough. Elections in
which the opposition is barred from the airwaves, has
its rallies harassed or its newspapers censored, are not
democratic. The party in power may enjoy the advantages
of incumbency, but the rules and conduct of the election contest
must be fair.
Democratic elections are periodic. Democracies do
not elect dictators or presidents-for-life. Elected
officials are accountable to the people, and they must return to
the voters at prescribed intervals to seek their
mandate to continue in office. This means that officials in a
democracy must accept the risk of being voted out
of office. The one exception is judges who, to insulate them
against popular pressure and help ensure their
impartiality, may be appointed for life and removed only for
serious improprieties.
Democratic elections are inclusive. The definition
of citizen and voter must be large enough to
include a large proportion of the adult population. A government
chosen by a small, exclusive group is not a
democracy--no matter how democratic its internal workings may
appear. One of the great dramas of democracy
throughout history has been the struggle of excluded
groups--whether racial, ethnic, or religious minorities, or
women--to win full citizenship, and with it the right to vote and
hold office. In the United States, for example,
only white male property holders enjoyed the right to elect and
be elected when the Constitution was signed in
1787. The property qualification disappeared by the early 19th
century, and women won the right to vote in
1920. Black Americans, however, did not enjoy full voting rights
in the southern United States until the civil
rights movement of the 1960s. And finally, in 1971, younger
citizens were given the right to vote when the
United States lowered the voting age from 21 to 18.
Democratic elections are definitive. They determine
the leadership of the government. Subject to the
laws and constitution of the country, popularly elected
representatives hold the reins of power. They are not
simply figureheads or symbolic leaders.
Finally, democratic elections are not limited to selecting
candidates. Voters can also be asked to decide
policy issues directly through referendums and initiatives that
are placed on the ballot. In the United States, for
example, state legislatures can decide to "refer," or place, an
issue directly before the voters. In the case of an
initiative, citizens themselves can gather a prescribed number of
signatures (usually a percentage of the number
of registered voters in that state) and require that an issue be
placed on the next ballot--even over the objections
of the state legislature or governor. In a state such as
California, voters confront dozens of legislative initiatives
each time they vote--on issues ranging from environmental
pollution to automobile insurance costs.
Democratic Ethics and the Loyal Opposition
Democracies thrive on openness and accountability, with one
very important exception: the act of voting
itself. To cast a free ballot and minimize the opportunity for
intimidation, voters in a democracy must be
permitted to cast their ballots in secret. At the same time, the
protection of the ballot box and tallying of vote
totals must be conducted as openly as possible, so that citizens
are confident that the results are accurate and that
the government does, indeed, rest upon their "consent."
One of the most difficult concepts for some to accept,
especially in nations where the transition of power has
historically taken place at the point of a gun, is that of the
"loyal opposition." This idea is a vital one, however.
It means, in essence, that all sides in a democracy share a
common commitment to its basic values. Political
competitors don't necessarily have to like each other, but they
must tolerate one another and acknowledge that
each has a legitimate and important role to play. Moreover, the
ground rules of the society must encourage
tolerance and civility in public debate.
When the election is over, the losers accept the judgment of
the voters. If the incumbent party loses, it turns
over power peacefully. No matter who wins, both sides agree to
cooperate in solving the common problems of
the society. The losers, now in the political opposition, know
that they will not lose their lives or go to jail. On
the contrary, the opposition, whether it consists of one party or
many, can continue to participate in public life
with the knowledge that its role is essential in any democracy
worthy of the name. They are loyal not to the
specific policies of the government, but to the fundamental
legitimacy of the state and to the democratic process
itself.
As the next election comes around, opposition parties will
again have the opportunity to compete for power.
In addition, a pluralistic society, one in which the reach of
government is limited, tends to offer election losers
alternatives for public service outside government. Those
defeated at the polls may choose to continue as a
formal opposition party, but they may also decide to participate
in the wider political process and debate through
writing, teaching, or joining one of many private organizations
concerned with public policy issues. Democratic
elections, after all, are not a fight for survival but a
competition to serve.
Defining Democracy
Rights
The Rule of Law
The Culture of Democracy
Democratic Government
Politics, Economics, and Pluralism
Democracy Resources
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